Wednesday, April 25, 2012

Conflict & Perceptions of Empowerment


Conflict & Perceptions of Empowerment
Although organizational conflict among team members has been researched extensively, less attention has been afforded to conflicts between employees and supervisors.  However, it is important to note how empowerment relates to conflict.  “A higher sense of empowerment implies greater self-control and higher levels of intrinsic motivation through which people can self-manage their work behavior and performance standards” (Chen, Lam, Zhong, 2007).  Typically, “in supervisor - subordinate relationships, technical and administrative issues - which fall into the category of substantive conflicts - were the major topics of disagreements between employees and their supervisors” (Landry, Vandenberghe, 2009).  Instances of conflict resulting from personality clashes or barriers to interpersonal communication (i.e., relationship conflicts) are much less common.  These substantive conflicts (also called issue or task conflicts) refer to differences regarding ideas, opinions, organizational policies and procedures, and differing views on working situations (Landry, Vandenberghe, 2009).
In this particular study, the sample used consisted of 238 supervisor-subordinate dyads drawn from two Chinese limited corporations of the motor manufacturing industry, each with more than 1,500 workers.  Questionnaires focused on Leader-Member Exchange (LMX), empowerment climate, sense of empowerment, negative-feedback seeking behavior, and the insubordinates’ in-role performance, were administered to the groups of employees and supervisors in separate rooms.  The results were as follows:
  1. LMX was found to be positively related to negative-feedback seeking behavior.
  2. LMX was positively and significantly related to both the objective and subjective in-role performance of the subordinates.
  3. Negative feedback-seeking behavior partially mediated the links between LMX and the subordinates’ objective and subjective in-role performance (Chen, Lam, Zhong, 2007). 
In summary, "subordinates’ feedback-seeking behavior was found to mediate the relationship between LMX and work performance, a team’s empowerment climate was found to be positively related to subordinates’ sense of empowerment, and the moderating effect of LMX and empowerment was found to negatively moderate the LMX-performance link” (Chen, Lam, Zhong, 2007).

References:
Chen, Z., Lam, W., & Zhong, J.A. (2007). Leader-Member Exchange & Member
            Performance: A new look at Individual-Level Negative-Feedback Seeking
            Behavior & Team-Level Empowerment Climate [Electronic version].
            Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(1), 202-212.
Landry, G., Vandenberghe, C. (2009). Role of Commitment to the Supervisor,
            Leader-Member Exchange, & Supervisor-Based Self-Esteem in
Employee-Supervisor Conflicts [Electronic version]. Journal of Applied Psychology, 149(1), 5-27.

Monday, April 23, 2012

Depression & its affects


           
Depression & its affects
            “The World Health Organization (2000) estimates that unipolar depression is the currently the most prevalent psychiatric condition and predicts it to become the second most significant cause of global disease burden by 2020” (Thomas & Hersen, 2004, p.133).  Depression affects people of all genders, races, ages, and economic backgrounds, yet is twice more prevalent among women than men.  Factors causing depression include biochemistry, genetics, family history, substance abuse, illness, and traumatic life events.  In some cases the depression may be mild, while others are quite severe.  Some of these factors also become the effects of depression, i.e. substance abuse and illness.  This indirectly leads to increased accident rates, medical hospitalization, and outpatient care.  “The manifestations of depression are estimated to burden the U.S. economy as much as $44 billion per year…The most significant indirect cost is decreased productivity, which is a result of increased absenteeism” (Thomas & Hersen, 2004, p. 133).
            Due to the nature of the affects of depression on a national and personal level, Julie Totten founded Families for Depression Awareness (FFDA), a non-profit organization whose mission is to “help families recognize and cope with depressive disorders, to get people well, and prevent suicides” (familyaware.org, 2010).  (It’s one of the eighty national partners of the Outreach Partnership Program of the National Institute of Mental Health: NIMH).  They provide education, outreach, and advocacy to support families who have lost a loved one to suicide or have witnessed a family member experience depression, with little knowledge concerning how to assist them.  Families for Depression Awareness provide family profiles / interviews, promotional activities, speaking engagements, conferences, workshops, community outreach to schools, police stations, health facilities, religious organizations, nursing homes, and employers.  A workplace program to assist employers was created in response to the current economic crisis.  This program helps employers to lower costs, increase productivity, and realize a better utilization of the company’s Employee Assistance Programs (EAP).  Within this program, FFDA implements workplace training, community service, employee communications, and disability education.  To learn more, contact: Julie Totten at
( 781)-890-0220 or info@familyaware.org.
            The Nurse Practitioner, the American Journal of Primary Health Care, posted a review of depression’s effects on work performance.  Between 2001 and 2003, “researchers compared the workplace habits of 286 depressed workers to those of 193 who were not depressed” (Lerner, Adler, Rogers, 2010).  The depressed group suffered from a lack of motivation, fatigue, managing their workload and routines, keeping up with a fast pace, and multitasking, all of which decreased their productivity.  Again this problem has become widespread and poses large economic and personal costs.
            As more outreach organizations such as Families for Depression Awareness and Employee Assistance Programs combat depression in the workplace, hopefully America will “reduce indirect workplace costs caused by the disorder” (Lerner et al., 2010).


References:
Families for Depression Awareness. Retrieved from http://www.familyaware.org. 
Lerner, D., Adler, D.A., Rogers, W.H. et al. (2010). Workplace Performance of
Employees with Depression: the impact of work stressors. Literature Review: Depression’s effects on work performance. The Nurse Practitioner: The American Journal of Primary Health Care, Vol. 35, 6-6. Retrieved from American Journal of Health Promotion, 24(3): 205-213.
Thomas, J. & Hersen, M. (2004). Psychopathology in the Workplace. New York, NY:
            Brunner-Routledge.

Friday, April 20, 2012

The role of the Law: Negotiation to Litigation


 
The role of the Law: Negotiation to Litigation

            Law remains an integral part of the dispute resolution process.  When disputants can not settle their own disagreements, it becomes necessary to involve negotiation agents in effort to achieve a resolution, be it out-of-court or within.  Lawyers and judges are relied upon due to the fact that there exists an “increased likelihood that the process will unfold as it should, with the right issues and claims being presented and addressed according to established procedures and protocols” (Moffitt & Bordone, 2005, p. 346).  Cases such as divorce and lawsuits are prime examples of disputes requiring litigation, while contractual or court-ordered arbitration may be essential in others.  In addition, “when disputants are deeply estranged from one another or have no expectation of further interaction apart from the lawsuit, they may appreciate the fact that litigation largely spares them from having to deal with each other” (Moffitt & Bordone, 2005, p. 348).
            Utilizing the law to resolve conflict can be beneficial.  First, it may be easier for a third party to negotiate the proceedings due to the fact that they are emotionally detached from the situation, and they possess the experience and expertise required to carry out the process.  Second, the law balances out the bargaining power between the disputants, so that neither party is convinced to offer concessions that she (or he) would rather not (Moffitt & Bordone, 2005).  The law aids in protecting the weaker party.  Also, the law protects disputants from voluntarily disclosing information to their opposition and sets limits on the ability of either party to gain bargaining power through the use of threats (Moffitt & Bordone, 2005).  Furthermore, absolute privilege wards off deceit and unfairness which may be abused during an alternative dispute resolution.
“Well established rules and procedures address nearly every detail of the process…the parties are aware of the basic stages of the process, the steps within them, and related deadlines…it helps ensure that legitimate grievances are resolved, and that they are resolved relatively peacefully”
(Moffitt & Bordone, 2005, p. 344-5, 353).   
            On the other hand, the law may be manipulated through lies or factual misrepresentations.  An attorney may embellish a story or conditions in effort to make the opposition reconsider their platform.  This deception, or false statement, may allot bargaining power to the plaintiff, persuading the defendant to propose a higher settlement amount than she (or he) otherwise would” (Moffitt & Bordone, 2005).  However, either side may exploit the interests of the opposition.  Additionally, utilizing the law to settle disputes is costly and time consuming.  “Litigants are often tempted to engage in tactical gamesmanship to delay the process, force their adversaries to incur unnecessary costs, or gain other advantages unrelated to the merits of the case” (Moffitt & Bordone, 2005, p. 345).

References:
Moffitt, M.L. & Bordone, R.C. (2005) The Handbook of Dispute Resolution.
            San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Thursday, April 19, 2012

Understanding Limitations



Understanding Limitations
 
            Practitioners are compelled to be aware of their incompetence and personal limitations.  As various clients and cases transpire, the practitioner must be capable of assessing the circumstances, applying their knowledge, realizing their inadequacies, and recognizing when a referral is necessary or advantageous, given that the well being of the client remains the focal point.  From a personal aspect, two situations which would require a referral are spousal abuse and drug or alcohol addiction.  If the client is being abused by their spouse, their information may be reported to law enforcement, a domestic violence support group, and possibly physical health care providers.  In a scenario in which the client is abusing drugs or alcohol, they may be referred to Alcoholics or Narcotics Anonymous and a drug treatment or rehabilitation facility.  “The counseling process can be unpredictable at times, and you may encounter situations in which the ethical path is to refer your client” (Corey & Associates, 2011, p. 329).  In effort to make a referral, the following steps should be employed:
1.      When you have decided that a client might benefit from additional services, tell them directly in a straightforward, matter-of-fact manner.
2.      Make it clear that your recommendation represents your concern and best judgment based on your observation of his or her behavior.
3.      Proceed with patience, except in emergencies.  Leave the option open for the client to accept or refuse your referral.
4.      If the client accepts the referral, pay attention to any concerns or questions they may have about additional services.
5.      Suggest to the client that you are willing to give referral information about the nature of the problem if he or she wishes.
6.      Call and notify the center that you have made a referral and express your concern
(Psychological Counseling Center, 2011).
Listed below is a likely referral scenario:
Rob is a twenty-two year old student in the midst of his sophomore year of college.  His academic advisor has been assisting him as he progresses toward his junior year and is seeking summer internships.  However, his academic performance has continuously declined since he joined a fraternity the previous fall.  At their most recent session, Rob reluctantly disclosed the fact that he was drinking more heavily and abusing prescription medication.  Hence, Rob will be referred to the on-campus Alcoholics Anonymous support group, enrolled into the Student Health Services program for students experiencing drug or alcohol abuse, and placed on academic probation.  These services and conditions will be utilized in effort to assist him with his alcohol and drug abuse, hinder him from being expelled, maintain his internship eligibility, and revamp his academic proficiency.

References:
Corey, G., Corey, M. S., & Callanan, P. (2011) Issues and ethics in the helping
professions (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.
Psychological Counseling Center, (2011). Making Referrals. Retrieved from
            http://www.brandeis.edu/studentaffairs/counseling/facstaff/makingreferrals.html.

Wednesday, April 18, 2012

Functional & Dysfunctional Conflict


 Functional & Dysfunctional Conflict
 
            Conflict may be viewed as being functional or dysfunctional.  Functional conflict refers to any divergence which is responsive and innovative aiding in creativity and viability (Falikowski, 2002).  This creative confrontation allows individuals engaged in a controversy or dispute to be at odds with the issues, yet not each other.  “The critical factor is the willingness to explore and resolve it mutually.  Appropriately handled, conflict can provide an important opportunity for growth” (Functional & Dysfunctional Conflicts, 2010).  Dysfunctional conflict occurs when conflict “disrupts, prevents job performance, and upsets personal psychological functioning” (Falikowski, 2002).  Typically, problems occur when emotions distort the content issue.  Feelings are misperceived or stated too intensely (Functional & Dysfunctional Conflicts, 2010).
            An example of an intergroup conflict which converted from functional to dysfunctional occurred amongst a communications class.  Students were assigned to groups of four or five and then were instructed to select a topic on which to deliver an oratorical speech.  Initially, selecting a topic was a bit of a challenge.  The group was indecisive.  After two class sessions passed without a topic being selected, the team captain suggested for the group to draw straws.  Soon thereafter, the topic was selected and agreed upon by all, and then the captain began to delegate tasks and research responsibilities.  However, this only proved to be a short-term solution.  The next two weeks, the group met with regularity.  Yet as time wore on, certain team members became disgruntled that their topic had not been selected, and began to cease meeting with the group outside of scheduled class time (i.e. library, dorm sessions).  The group began to fall behind in progress in comparison to the rest of the class; therefore the team captain took it upon himself to fulfill others’ obligations.  Nevertheless, this dysfunctional conflict could have been reverted back to functional by utilizing the following tactics:
1.      Mediation - Integrating a neutral third party: The team captain could have expressed his concern to the class instructor, requesting class time (while every team member was present) to have an intervention in which the instructor could express and reiterate the importance of group cooperation and involvement.
2.      Communication – Team members could have called one another throughout the week to check-in and update cross-information, rather than waiting for a particular session or meeting to initiate contact.

References:
Falikowski, A. (2002). Conflict. Retrieved from
            http://webhome.idirect.com/~kehamilt/ipsyconf.html.            
Functional & Dysfunctional Conflicts. Retrieved from

Tuesday, April 17, 2012

Intractable Conflict



 Intractable Conflict
            Intractable conflict occurs once destructive disputes endure for long periods of time and defy every effort to resolve them constructively (Deutsch, Coleman, & Associates, 2006).  The nature of the conflict, an imbalance of power, instability, the relationship of the parties involved, culture, and gender variances may escalate the dispute and enhance the difficulty of achieving a favorable resolution.  As time progresses, intractable conflicts often attract the participation of several parties, become progressively more complicated, and may threaten basic human needs or values (Deutsch, et al., 2006).  This has the potential to lead to violence, rape, murder, or bloodshed.  “Most intractable conflicts do not begin as such, but become so as escalation, hostile interactions, sentiment, and time change the quality of the conflict.”
(Deutsch et al., 2006, p. 534). 
            Intractable conflict may be resolved if the disputants are able to:
“adapt to the conflict situation, survive the stressful period, and struggle successfully with the adversary. The formal termination of such a conflict begins with the elimination of the perceived incompatibility between the opposing parties through negotiation by their representatives—that is, a conflict resolution process” (Bar-Tal, 2000).
The effectiveness of conflict resolution depends on the disputants’ ability to “change in the conflictive ethos, especially with respect to societal beliefs about group goals, about the adversary group, about the ingroup, about intergroup relations, and about the nature of peace” (Bar-Tal, 2000).  A desire for harmony, trust, acceptance, cooperation, and consideration of mutual needs between the opposing parties must exist.  The disputants must be willing to overlook their tumultuous history and commence to work constructively in effort to mend their damaged relationships and environments (Deutsch et al., 2006).

References:
Bar-Tal, D. (2000). From Intractable Conflict to Conflict Resolution to Reconciliation:
            Psychological Analysis. Political Psychology, 21(2), 351-365.
Deutsch, M., Coleman, P.T., Marcus, E.C., (Eds.). (2006). The Handbook of Conflict
Resolution: Theory & Practice. (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.


Monday, April 16, 2012

Confidentiality



 Confidentiality
Within the parameters of clinical therapy, confidentiality ensures that the information shared within the client-clinician sessions or interactions are exclusive and refrain from disclosing private information unless there is reasonable suspicion of child abuse, suicide, or harm to self or others.  This entails how the client’s information will be handled or managed.  However, privacy refers to the individual’s ability or desire to limit or control the access of others to themselves; what is the person willing and unwilling to disclose, rather than the limits of dissemination of the actual information they offer.  In short, privacy is about people whereas confidentiality is about data (Yasnoff, 2011).
In addition, “privileged communication is a confidential conversation between two people where the person receiving information from someone else cannot pass it on or testify to it in a court setting” (Ellis-Christensen & Wallace, 2011).  Therefore the privilege is based on legality, not ethics as with confidentiality. 
Now in regard to duty to warn, it refers to the practitioner’s responsibility to breach confidentiality if the client is in clear or imminent danger.  However, duty to protect refers to the practitioner’s responsibility to breach confidentiality if the actual client exudes the potential to endanger themselves or others (Corey, Corey, & Associates, 2011).
The most important thing to address with clients regarding any of the aforementioned factors is the fact that while you are required to respect and uphold their rights, you are equally required to disclose pertinent information in effort to protect the client, the public, and self.  A scenario in which these terms are discussed is as follows:
…now Jason I’d like to cover a few things with you before we proceed any further.  It has to do with your rights as an individual concerning the disclosure or sharing of your personal information.  See everything we discuss is private between you and me.  Typically, it will go no further than this room.  However, in cases wherein you may harm yourself or someone else, I am required by law to breach our confidentiality agreement and notify the proper authorities.  This is commonly referred to as a duty to protect.  Now in the event that you are endangered by external elements, then again I am required to breach the confidentiality agreement.  This is commonly referred to as a duty to warn.  Hopefully, neither of these issues will occur.  Any questions?...
Situations in which it is legally required to breach confidentiality are:
1.      A client who is a minor is involved in sexually risky behavior.
2.      A client has suicidal tendencies or expresses that they no longer desire to live.
3.      The client has fresh bruises and mannerisms which suggest abuse.
4.      The client threatens to kill their spouse or lover.
5.      The client admits they have abused their child in the past.

References:
Corey, G., Corey, M. S., & Callanan, P. (2011). Issues and ethics in the helping
professions. (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.
Ellis-Christensen, T. and Wallace, O. (2011). What is Privileged Communication?
            Retrieved April 21, 2011, from
Yasnoff, W.A. (2011). Confidentiality, Privacy, and Security. Retrieved April 21, 2011,

Friday, April 13, 2012

Top PSYCHOLOGY Contacts







A viable listing of psychologists, practitioners, students, doctors, researchers, writers, mental health services contacts, & applicable advice.

References:
LinkedIn.com
PSYblog

Defining & Approaching Power




 Defining & Approaching Power

            Power may be defined as possessing the controlling, strongest, or most influential force, interests, or qualities.  The individual or organization with the greater authority, houses the greater power.  In many instances, powerful entities are commanding and authoritative.  The disputant holding the most power may utilize, possibly abuse, their strength to gain an even greater advantage over their opposition or acquire their desires.  “Power is the currency of conflict.  If we do not understand the nature of power and how power affects conflict, we cannot understand conflict itself” (Mayer, 2000, p. 50).
            When evaluating how power is applied, one must consider the following; the normative, utilitarian, and coercive approaches.  By utilizing these methods, an individual may try to influence another’s behavior (Mayer, 2000).  First, the normative approach is exemplified when one appeals to their opposition’s values and beliefs.  “By framing their persuasive efforts in terms of values and by making use of normative symbols, disputants attempt to get others to comply with their wishes by convincing them that it is the right thing to do” (Mayer, 2000, p. 62).  Circumstances in which the utilization of the normative approach to power would be most effective include:
1)  Convincing an individual to attend church.
2)  Encouraging students not to fight or bring weapons to school.
3)  Coaching an athlete who may be abusing drug enhancers.
            Second, the utilitarian approach “is to appeal to people’s self-interests or to indicate that they will obtain certain tangible benefits if they do what one wishes” (Mayer, 2000, p. 62).  Circumstances in which the utilization of the utilitarian approach to power would be most effective include:
1)  An agent trying to convince their client to accept a campaign or promotion.
2)  An employer requiring more work or responsibility from their employees.
3)  A wife attempting to convince her husband to remodel the kitchen.
            Lastly, the coercive approach “is to try to force people to agree to something by threatening significant sanctions or by manipulating the external environment to take away their freedom of choice” (Mayer, 2000, p. 62).   Circumstances in which the utilization of the coercive approach to power would be most effective include:
1)  The prosecution encouraging the defendant to take a plea.
2)  An older sibling persuading their younger sister not to “tell” on them.
3)  A man desiring to have his fiancé sign a pre-nup.

References:
Mayer, B. (2000). The dynamics of conflict resolution: A practitioner’s guide.
            San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Thursday, April 12, 2012

Implementing Evaluation



Implementing Evaluation

           In the event that an organization would benefit from an evaluation yet inadequate or limited in fostering the necessary focus and resources, the consultant has a professional responsibility to convince management to implement supplementary resources advantageous to the proposed evaluation and consequently the organization.  Conveying such benefits is imperative to the consultant gaining administrative acceptance and support.  In effort to achieve such an aspiration, the consultant is obligated to execute the following:
  1. Develop an ample amount of commitment from the staff and management.
  2. Include stakeholders and consider their interests.
  3. Attain knowledge of the organizational environment and relative issues.
  4. Professionally, appropriately, and responsibly explicate and conduct the evaluation process (Russ-Eft & Preskill, 2009).
Given a specific circumstance such as a plunge in productivity as a speculated result of depleted employee satisfaction, the consultant may desire to conduct an employee evaluation or assessment.  This would enable the consultant to gain insight into the issues afflicting employees, how the organization and work conditions affect their level of satisfaction, and pinpoint areas of improvement.  In addition they may deem it necessary to seek outsourced assistance of a counseling firm or support service, or implement employee satisfaction tactics.  In effort to do so they would need to offer their observation to management and request permission to proceed.  Once granted proper consent, the consultant should research and contact organizational counseling consultants specializing in employee satisfaction.  Next, the consultant should address the staff along with management, explaining their agenda, objectives, expected effects, and probable future impact.

References:
Russ-Eft, D. & Preskill, H. (2009). Evaluation in organizations: A systematic approach
to enhancing learning, performance, and change (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books.

LOCATION, Location, location

"out of this world from within"

Intergroup Conflict Escalation


 
Intergroup Conflict Escalation

             Conflict escalation transpires when there is “an increase in the intensity of a conflict and in the severity of tactics used in pursuing it. When conflicts escalate, more people tend to become involved. Parties begin to make bigger and stronger threats and impose harsher negative sanctions” (Maiese, 2003).  “Escalation involves the increasing use of heavier methods of influence, especially coercive or punishing tactics, by each group to reach its goals in opposition to those of the other group” (Deutsch, Coleman, Marcus, 2006, p. 184).  Intergroup conflict escalation occurs when these issues exist or spread amongst a group or organization.  For the practitioner, it is important to note what factors contribute to the escalation of conflict, in effort to assist the disputants in deescalating the conflict, or to deter escalation from occurring altogether.  Various factors that tend to escalate intergroup conflict are as follows:
  1. Incompatible Goals - If the parties do not see a possibility of finding a mutually beneficial solution and one believes that it has the power to substantially alter the aspirations of the other; it may try to bully the other side into submission.
  2. Uncompromising Beliefs / Values - Matters regarded by adversaries as being integral to their personal or collective identities; groups that exhibit radically different attitudes, values, and behaviors, parties may feel criticized, demeaned, or threatened.
  3. Hostility - Typically caused by grievances or a sense of injustice, and may ultimately be rooted in events of the distant past. One party feels that it has been treated unfairly by its opponent, and angrily blames its opponent for the suffering it has endured.
  4. Selective Perception - Once parties have expectations about the other side, they tend to notice the behavior that fits these expectations. But this tendency to make observations that fit their preconceptions simply makes those preconceptions stronger.  As a result, the actions of distrusted parties are seen as threatening, even when their actions are ambiguous (Maiese, 2003).
However, “through a combination of skills in interpersonal communication, group facilitation, intergroup problem solving, and system-level consulting, outside third parties or balanced teams of representatives can assist groups to confront their differences effectively” (Deutsch, Coleman, Marcus, 2006, p. 195).  In effort to manage these conflicts, the following techniques may be utilized:
  1. Avoidance - Although this does not resolve the problem, it can help get a group through a period of time, in which those involved may become more objective, or a greater, more immediate goal would have been met.  This approach is especially effective on relatively simple conflicts and is viewed as a short-term remedy.
  2. Problem Solving / Cooperation / Collaboration - Can be very effective in conflicts of misunderstanding or language barriers. The groups can discuss issues and relevant information, with or without a facilitator, to reach resolution; Long-term resolution.
  3. Authoritative Command - Where groups, who cannot satisfactorily resolve their conflict, are commanded by management; Short-term remedy.
  4. Focal Point - Focusing on the cause of the conflict and the attitudes of those involved, will lead to a more permanent resolution (Belak, 1998).
References:
Belak, T. (1998). Intergroup Conflict in the Workplace. Retrieved August 12, 2010, from
Deutsch, M., Coleman, P.T., Marcus, E.C., (Eds.). (2006). The Handbook of Conflict
Resolution: Theory & Practice. (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Maiese, M. (2003). Destructive Escalation. Retrieved August 12, 2010, from

Wednesday, April 11, 2012

Analyzing Psychological Methodologies


 
Analyzing Psychological Methodologies
When considering counseling and psychotherapy various approaches are utilized.  Among these, thought-focused treatment systems, psychoanalytical methods, and psychodynamic approaches are employed in effort to treat psychological dysfunctions.  Therefore it is imperative for the clinician to be aware of the differences amongst these in order to appropriately apply to the case in question.  In addition, it is beneficial to consider irrational beliefs and cognitive disorders which inhibit clients from achieving their basic goals.  Understanding and utilizing shaping and token economies is advantageous as well.  The following will examine these terms and practices.
            The foremost concern is understanding thought-focused treatment systems, psychoanalytical methods, and psychodynamic approaches, and recognition of the variances between them. First, thought-focused treatment systems refer to approaches which deem thoughts and cognitions as the principal conduit to change.  “Cognitive clinicians believe that thoughts lead to emotions and behaviors and that, through awareness and modification of their thoughts, people can change their feelings and actions” (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2010, p. 241).  Second, psychoanalysis, commonly referred to as mind investigation, enables the clinician to explore the client’s conscious and more importantly their unconscious mind.  Freud first dubbed the term in explanation of his study of neurology, psychological disorders and their treatment (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2010).  Third, “psychodynamic therapy, also known as insight-oriented therapy, focuses on unconscious processes as they are manifested in a person’s present behavior” (Haggerty,  2006).  The objective of this approach is to increase the client’s self-awareness and recognizing how their present behavior was shaped by their past.  Although each of these approaches are similar, considering they focus on the client’s thought process, they differ as well.  To begin with, thought-focused treatment systems encourage people to be aware of their thoughts and change their thought process in effort to alter their behavior in the future, while psychoanalysis and psychodynamics examine how contemplation affects the client’s current or past behavior.  Subsequently, “the theory supporting psychodynamic therapy originated in and is informed by psychoanalytic theory” (Haggerty, 2006).  Hence it is a branch which stems from psychoanalysis.  What separates the latter two is the fact that psychoanalysis examines both the conscious and subconscious of the client, while psychodynamic approaches solely consider the subconscious.  Furthermore, psychoanalysis focuses on previous life experience, the past, as well as behaviors at present.  However, psychodynamic therapy specifically centers on present behaviors and thoughts.  Each of these systems relates the client’s thought process to their actions, yet they utilize differing measures and time periods to varying degrees.
            Next, one must reflect on irrational beliefs used by Rational Emotive Behavior (REBT) therapists.  There are eleven as prescribed by Albert Ellis.  The following beliefs shape one’s behavior and emotions, hindering them from attaining their fundamental goals:
  • It is a dire necessity for adult humans to be loved or approved by virtually every significant other person in their community.
  • One absolutely must be competent, adequate and achieving in all important respects or else one is an inadequate, worthless person.
  • People absolutely must act considerately and fairly and they are damnable villains if they do not. They are their bad acts.
  • It is awful & terrible when things are not the way one would very much like them to be.
  • Emotional disturbance is mainly externally caused & people have little or no ability to increase or decrease their dysfunctional feelings & behaviors.
  • If something is or may be dangerous or fearsome, then one should be constantly & excessively concerned about it & should keep dwelling on the possibility of it occurring.
  • One cannot & must not face life's responsibilities & difficulties & it is easier to avoid them.
  • One must be quite dependent on others & need them & you cannot mainly run one's own life.
  • One's past history is an all-important determiner of one's present behavior & because something once strongly affected one's life, it should indefinitely have a similar effect.
  • Other people's disturbances are horrible & one must feel upset about them.
  • There is invariably a right, precise & perfect solution to human problems & it is awful if this perfect solution is not found (Ellis, 1994).
An example of one’s past history indefinitely affecting them to the same degree would be an individual who was physically abused as a child having continued intimacy issues and abusing their significant other or children.  An indecisive adult living with their parents since birth, unemployed and not actively seeking work, without a driver’s license, thus having their parents provide food, clothing, transportation, and shelter on their behalf, is an example of an overly dependent individual.
            Now, when considering Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Behavior Theory (CBT), one must take into account common cognitive distortions or faulty thought patterns, which induce depression.  “These inaccurate thoughts are usually used to reinforce negative thinking or emotions - telling ourselves things that sound rational and accurate, but really only serve to keep us feeling bad about ourselves” (Grohol, 2009).  Beck composed a listing of fifteen distortions as follows: Filtering, Polarized Thinking, Overgeneralization, Jumping to Conclusions, Catastrophizing, Personalization, Control Fallacies, Fallacy of Fairness, Blaming, Shoulds, Emotional Reasoning, Fallacy of Change, Global Labeling, Always Being Right, and Heaven’s Reward Fallacy.  If an individual is constantly holding others responsible for their failures, shortcomings, circumstances, or unhappiness, they are exemplifying the blaming distortion.  An example of catastrophizing would be an individual exaggerating two cars bumping in a parking lot as if it were a near-fatal accident.
            It may also be necessary for the clinician to employ shaping and token economies.  Token economies were first used in mental institutions, yet are currently used in schools and treatment centers in effort to shape and modify behavior.  It “is a system in which targeted behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary reinforcers) and are later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcers)” (Maycock, 2010).  In effort to exercise this technique, the practitioner may offer the client a marble for exemplifying positive behavior.  Once they have amassed a certain number of marbles, they may exchange them for a free session.  Another example would be a practitioner offering the client a penny every time they arrived on time.  Then every five pennies they would receive a restaurant gift card as compensation.
          
            In conclusion, it behooves the clinician to possess an array of techniques within their repertoire.  Each client’s needs will vary; therefore the approach should be tailored to their particular case.  The clinician is responsible for being aware and understanding various strategies of therapeutic processes.  In effort to treat those with psychological dysfunctions the clinician may utilize thought-focused treatment systems, psychoanalytical methods, or psychodynamic approaches.  Also, understanding irrational beliefs and cognitive distortions will assist them in treating and comprehending their client’s behavior.  In addition, the token economy system may be used to encourage the client to comply and express positive, favorable behavior.  Each of these strategies and factors are relative and beneficial to counseling and psychotherapy. 

References:
Ellis, A. (1994). Ellis’ Irrational Beliefs. Retrieved March 14, 2011, from
Grohol, J.M. (2009). 15 Common Cognitive Distortions. Retrieved March 14, 2011, from
Haggerty, J. (2006). Psychodynamic Therapy. Retrieved March 14, 2011, from
Maycock, D. (2010). How to use a token economy to shape your child’s behavior.
Seligman, L. W. & Reichenberg, L. W. (2009). Theories of counseling and
psychotherapy: Systems, strategies, and skills (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Tuesday, April 10, 2012

Positional vs Interest-based communications


 Positional vs Interest-based communications
 Often, positional versus interest-based communications results in conflict.  A personal stance on a particular issue often conflicts with common or underlying interests, while interest-based communications focuses on the utilization of common interests in effort to benefit the resolution process.  These differences in communication patterns typically hinder effective conflict resolution due to the fact that they do not compliment one another.  However, in order to achieve a favorable resolve, the utilization of dialogue would benefit the conflict of communication.
First, “positional bargaining is a negotiation that involves holding on to a fixed idea, or position, of what you want and arguing for it and it alone, regardless of any underlying interests” (Spangler, 2003).  Often times this is the initial strategy sought within a negotiation or bartering scenario.  Unfortunately, “as the negotiation advances, the negotiators become more and more committed to their positions, continually restating and defending them. A strong commitment to defending a position usually leads to a lack of attention to both parties' underlying interests” (Spangler, 2003).  Commonly this approach is considered a less constructive and less efficient strategy for negotiation, due to the fact that it is less likely to result in a win-win outcome and may also tarnish the relationship between parties.
On the other hand, interest-based communications encourages opposing parties to collaborate to see if they can resolve their issues by addressing their mutual concerns and common interests.  This approach increases the likelihood that:
1. The parties will feel that the decision-making process has been a fair one.
2. The parties will be more committed to carrying out the agreements made.
3. They are more likely to have a greater understanding of, and respect for, each        other.
4. If future conflicts arise, they will have an example to follow, making it easier for the parties to address the conflict and deal with it constructively.
5. It is more cost and time efficient than positional communication, and it may improve the relationship (Office of the Dispute Resolution Specialist, 2004).
Interest-based communications tend to yield a win-win outcome, due to the fact that both parties are collectively working together by negotiating, joint problem-solving, mutual gains bargaining, and brainstorming (Furlong, 2005).
When experiencing communication conflicts, dialogue is an effective approach to resolution.  “Participants in conversations and similar highly interactive communicative forms behave less like autonomous information processors and more like participants in an intrinsically cooperative activity” (Deutsch, Coleman, Marcus, 2006, p. 152).  The utilization of dialogue allows the parties to collaborate and actively communicate.  “In dialogic perspective, communication is regarded as a joint accomplishment of the participants, who have collaborated to achieve some set of communicative goals” (Deutsch, Coleman, Marcus, 2006, p. 153).  Therapists, religious leaders, and mediators encourage the usage of these processes to break down stereotypes, and to build up mutual understanding and trust between members of opposing parties. They are commonly used to resolve domestic disputes, in peer mediation, in public policy conflicts in the U.S., as well as in international conflicts and communal or ethnic conflicts around the world (Conflict Research Consortium, 1998).

References:
Conflict Research Consortium: University of Colorado (1998). Dialogue Projects.
            Retrieved July 31, 2010, from
Deutsch, M., Coleman, P.T., Marcus, E.C., (Eds.). (2006). The Handbook of Conflict
Resolution: Theory & Practice. (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Furlong, G.T. (2005). The Conflict Resolution Toolbox. Ontario, Canada: John Wiley &
            Sons Canada, Ltd.
Office of the Dispute Resolution Specialist (2004). A Four-Step Way of Dealing
With Conflict. Retrieved July 31, 2010 from
Spangler, B., (2003). Positional Bargaining. Retrieved July 31, 2010, from

Monday, April 9, 2012

History’s Influence on Modern Psychology


 
History’s Influence on Modern Psychology
             In terms of the most influential portion of the history of psychology in relation to current practice, the era consuming the emergence of experimental psychology is highly regarded.  During the greater part of 19th century, from 1820-1920, experimental psychology was developed and laid the foundation for modern studies, setting numerous standards within the field.  Beginning in Germany and flourishing throughout the United States, a greater scientific approach emerged.  Pioneers such as Weber, Fechner, Ebbinghaus, Muller, Kulpe, Freud, and notably the ‘father’ of the movement, Wundt established research, experiments, techniques, laboratories, schools, and ideologies which led to widespread usage and applicability within various areas of psychology to date (Goodwin, 2008).
             To begin with, from 1815 to 1871 European and American students ventured to Germany in effort to experience a research and experimental approach to psychology, particularly in Leipzig (due south of Berlin).  These methods included measurement, replicability, public data, and controlled tests, which were implemented into the study of the nervous system and human behavior (Goodwin, 2008).  This scientific methodology forged the new frontier in the field.  Prior to these practices, for centuries dating back to Ancient Greece and Egypt, philosophy, the study of “wisdom; in actual usage, the knowledge of phenomena as explained by, and resolved into, causes and reasons, powers and laws” (Webster, 2011), was the basis for the awareness and speculation of brain function, dream interpretation, mental imbalance, and inner thoughts or feelings.  Yet with the surfacing of experimental psychology, laboratory progression expanded and has been imitated and utilized since.  “This new psychology called for the scientific examination of human conscious experience, using methods borrowed from experimental physiology and supplemented by new strategies” (Goodwin, 2008, p. 110).
            Although early studies centered on visual and auditory sensation, Ernst Weber (1795-1878) concluded that skin sensitivity was a result of the combination of a psychological and physical process.  In addition, his interests in kinesthesis proved that mental stimuli affect an individual’s physical reaction or interpretation.  These findings (Weber’s Law as it is referred to at present day) have enabled practitioners to determine mental perceptions and were the precursors to the formation of psychophysics (Goodwin, 2008).
            Furthermore, Gustav Fechner (1801-1889) appended Weber’s research.  His belief in the systematic unification of the mind and body, with the mind serving as the dominant figure, nurtured the development of psychophysics.  His methods (still in present use) identified limits, constant stimuli, and adjustments through the utilization of thresholds.  Fechner’s research fostered scientific methodology as a means of measuring psychological condition (Goodwin, 2008). 
Consequently, Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) constructed modern psychology from the works of Weber and Fechner.  In particular his focal point consisted of the psychophysical process.  He originated the theory of relating mental occurrences to actual reactions.  He deemed the mind as a movement rather than a mere immobile form of matter.  Researches during this era enabled practitioners to measure mental capacity and validate psychology as a credible experimental science (Indiana University, 2012).
The following timeline highlights pertinent advancements and expansions relative to the significance of experimental psychology to modern practices:
-1834 – Weber published his perception theory entitled Just Noticeable Difference (Weber’s Law).
-1859 – Darwin published On the Origin of Species denoting his belief in the
survival of the fittest. 
-1869 – Galton published Hereditary Genius signifying that intellectual prowess
is a result of biological occurrences.
-1878 – Hall is the first American to receive a PhD in psychology and later
founds the American Psychological Association (1892).
-1879 – Wundt founds the world’s first psychology lab at the University of
Leipzig.
-1883 – The first psychology lab in America was established at Johns Hopkins
University.
-1885 – Ebbinghaus provided advancements in the study of memory processes.
-1886 – Freud commenced the study of personality theory.
-1890 – James publishes Principles of Psychology the basis of Functionalism.
-1895 – Binet establishes the first lab for psychodiagnosis.
-1896 – Clinical psychology was founded at the University of Pennsylvania.
-1900 – Freud publishes ‘Interpretation of Dreams’ innovating psychoanalytic
thought.
-1901 – The British Psychological Society established.
-1905 – Binet’s Intelligence Test was developed in France. First utilized in the
United States in 1916.
 -1912 – Stern innovates the measurement for IQ. Wertheimer fosters Gestalt
Psychology.
-1913 – J. E. Watson cultivates Behavioral Psychology.
-1920 – J. B. Watson & Raynor publish ‘The Little Albert Experiments’ proving
that fear is classically conditioned (All Psych, 2003) (Cherry, 2012).
 In summary, contemporary experimental psychologists work in an array of fields in educational settings, laboratories, government, private organizations, and counseling services, in effort to examine cognitive reasoning, behavior, neuroscience, and personality.  Without the development and standardization of experimental psychology these arenas would be rendered ineffective and unbeneficial to the field.  The contributions of such aforementioned pioneers in relative context have proved to be vital to present day practices.  To date, experimentation remains the essential means of examining human behavior (Cherry, 2012). 

References:
All Psych (2003). History of psychology: (387 B.C. to present). Retrieved March 4, 2012,
            from http://allpsych.com/timeline.html.
Cherry, K. (2012). What is experimental psychology? A closer look at the experimental side of
            psychology. Retrieved March 4, 2012, from
Goodwin, C.J. (2008). A history of modern psychology (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Indiana University. Human intelligence. Retrieved March 4, 2012, from
Webster. Philosophy. Retrieved March 4, 2012, from, http://dictionary.webster.us/search.