Personality Disorders within the Workplace...

  Personality Disorders within the Workplace:

an analysis of Narcissism & Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder

“Personality is a key factor in determining the quality of interpersonal relationships in the workplace, which in turn influences the overall work environment.  Personality disorders by their very nature are diagnoses that result in negative interpersonal interactions and dysfunctional behaviors, which necessarily affect the workplace as a whole” (Thomas & Hersen, 2004, p. 159).  These types of disorders may significantly alter an individual’s cognition, emotion, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control.  The following will briefly analyze various personality disorders in the workplace, and then specifically focus on narcissism and obsessive compulsive personality disorder.

            According to Cavaiola and Lavender (O’Farrell, 2001), the top ten types of dysfunctional people on the job are as follows: the schizoid, paranoid, anti-social, histrionic, borderline, narcissist, obsessive compulsive, dependent, passive-aggressive, and avoidant.  The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders – Fourth Edition – Text Revision goes on to group these disorders into clusters based on similar characteristics.  Cluster A, those affected by schizophrenia and paranoia, appear odd or eccentric.  The schizoid dislikes interpersonal interaction and has abnormal ways of thinking and behaving.  Paranoid individuals are distrustful and have difficulty interpreting other’s behaviors.  They feel as if the world is plotting against them.  Cluster B, the anti-social, histrionic, borderline, and narcissistic; tend to be erratic, emotional, or dramatic.  Anti-social personalities continuously disregard the rights and belongings of others with no regret.  Histrionics are the ‘drama queens’.  They must be the center of attention.  Borderline individuals “have impulsive behavior patterns, a fear of abandonment, and unstable moods and relationships with others” (Thomas & Hersen, 2004, p. 148).  The Narcissist constantly needs to be adored, is extremely cocky, and neglects the wants and needs of others.  Lastly, Cluster C, obsessive compulsive, dependent, passive-aggressive, and avoidant, is characterized as being apprehensive or anxious.  Obsessive compulsive individuals are controlling perfectionists.  Dependents are needy, clingy, and submissive.  Passive-aggressive people are subtle rebels.  And avoidant personalities are shy, “have very low self-esteem and are hypersensitive to criticism or rejection” (Thomas & Hersen, 2004, p.148).

Now begins an in-depth analysis of narcissism.  Again, narcissists possess an exceptional interest in and admiration of themselves.  The term, narcissism, was developed from Greek mythology; “Narcissus was a handsome young boy who fell in love with his own reflection, then died of starvation by confusing that reflection with his true self” (Thomas, 2010).  In 1898 the term was introduced into psychological literature by Havelock Ellis.  His exact usage was Narcissus-like referring to “a tendency for the sexual emotions to be lost and almost entirely absorbed in self admiration” (Raskin & Terry, 1988).  By 1914 narcissism had become the nucleus of Freud’s meta-psychological and clinical thinking.  Many contemporary historians believe the condition was central to the development of Freud’s “structural model (id, ego, and superego), concept of the ego ideal and subsequently the superego, shift from an id psychology to an ego psychology, and object relations theory” (Raskin & Terry, 1988).  

The addiction to self-image associated with narcissism causes those affected to manipulate work and social relationships in order to validate a self which is incapable of sustaining a sense of well-being.  Vaknin (2007) agrees and further states, “Narcissists are good actors.  They are adept at charming others, persuading them, manipulating them, or otherwise influencing them to do their bidding” (HealthyPlace.com Staff Writer, 2007).  Due to this fact, it’s difficult to recognize this personality type right away in most cases.  In addition, they seek other’s input to regulate their own self-worth often times by bullying tactics such as verbal and emotional abuse.  “They have no empathy and regard their co-workers as mere instruments, objects, tools, and sources of adulation, affirmation, or potential benefits” (HealthyPlace.com Staff Writer, 2007).  Workplace behaviors associated with narcissism include anger, resentment, and envy towards whomever they perceive to be the source of their frustration: a popular co-worker, a successful boss, a qualified or skilled employee.  They tend to be immature, nagging, and possess a sense of entitlement.

This type of behavior has an ill-affect on organizations.  The company’s best interests are put on hold behind the narcissist’s personal agenda.  This leads to a deterioration of the organization’s performance, lowers morale, and may cause absenteeism as others attempt to avoid the affected.  Narcissism also “results in poor judgments that turn into costly decisions, ultimately resulting in negative long-term outcomes” (Thomas, 2010).  If allowed to spread, patrimonial bureaucracy will occur as “employees become personally loyal to their superiors in such a way as to always feel the need to seek their approval before acting” (Thomas, 2010).  Without intervention, this inevitably creates a totalitarian organization.

Based on Beehr’s Meta-Model of Occupational Stress, the following steps would be beneficial coping strategies for narcissism:

1.      Identifying personal characteristics: arrogance, competitiveness, aggressiveness.

2.      Identifying stressors / strains: frustrations, insecurities, self-esteem / image issues.

3.      Coping & adaptation: assisting / influencing the affected to admit to their behavioral problems and the negative affect they are having on the organization, and / or having a narcissistic breakdown (Thomas, 2010).

It is in the best interest of the organization to allow management or senior executives to implement assessment strategies to identify the affected, in order to ward off further abuse or disregard.  This may be achieved by observing the narcissist’s attitude and arrogance, impatience, noncompliance with company regulations, their lack of empathy, and the stress levels of others (Thomas, 2010). 

Once the assessment has been made, co-workers (CW) and / or management (M) may implement intervention strategies.  The following rules were created by Grier (2010) as listed in Narcissism in the Workplace: Crime Scene – Do Not Enter:

1.      Do not attempt to reason with a narcissist. (CW)

2.      Never confront a narcissist about his misconduct when the two of you are alone. (CW)

3.      Set boundaries (CW, M)

4.      Let no negative action go unchallenged. (CW, M)

5.      Utilize leadership tactics, normal management techniques will not work.  Zero tolerance should be the rule…removal from the workplace should be management’s first instinct. (M)

6.      Keep a record of dates & incidents / conflicts. (CW, M)

7.      Expect criticism (CW)

8.      If the narcissist does not like you, do not worry, it is not about you. (CW)

9.      It is okay to feel relief / joy when you & the narcissist finally part company. (CW, M)

10.  Pick up the pieces & don’t look back (CW, M) (Grier, 2010).

The next description illustrates obsessive compulsive personality disorder (OCPD).  To begin with,   

this condition often implies a relation to obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD).  “While OCD and OCPD share some symptoms, the two disorders are unrelated” (Psychiatric-Disorders.com, 2010).  Individuals with OCD are usually aware that their obsessions are abnormal yet are determined to perform them anyway, while those with OCPD feel as if their need for strict rules and order is perfectly normal.  Also, OCD sufferers have difficulty achieving work success, yet OCPDs usually perform well in work environments.  OCPD affects over sixteen million adult Americans (7.9% of the general population) who as a result are “inflexible, perfectionists and unwilling to yield responsibilities to others” (Psychiatric-Disorders.com, 2010).  Latimer (2010) agrees, as it is one of the most common disorders he treats within his clinical practice.  He defines these people as being “preoccupied with orderliness, neatness, and cleanliness… perfectionists, constricted, and disciplined” (Latimer, 2010).  Those with OCPD respect authority and follow the rules, but are often pressed for time and appear to be extremely tense.  Other characteristics of individuals affected by OCPD are lack of generosity, neglecting social and family activities, abnormal preoccupation with lists and minor details, refusal to throw away anything (pack-rat mentality), stubbornness, and domineering.  “This behavior sets the stage for power struggles and unpleasantness with others in the family or workplace” (Latimer, 2010).  OCPD is believed to be caused by genetics as it often runs in families.  “Family dynamics and parenting styles may also explain the frequency of the disorder in some families” (Psychiatric-Disorders.com, 2010).  

Again, in the workplace, OCPD often leads to success.  People affected by this disorder “require routine and need to know where they stand in the social hierarchy, and nowhere is that hierarchy more obvious than in the workplace” (Psychiatric-Disorders.com, 2010).  Since they respect authority, comply with regulation, and tend to devote themselves to their careers, they earn recognition from their superiors.  However, to those beneath them in hierarchy, they may give harsh criticism and seem to exhibit self-righteousness.  Another problem created in the workplace due to this disorder is caused when the drive for perfectionism and picking over minor details prevents the affected from meeting deadlines and slows productivity.  In addition, “an insistence on observing even the most insignificant regulations, the need to micromanage projects, and obvious criticism and contempt for subordinates, can lead to conflict with, and alienation from, fellow employees” (Psychiatric-Disorders.com, 2010).  Another disadvantage associated with OCPD is the reaction to change.  Many affected become overwhelmed once new regulations, expectations, or management are implemented, or when the demands on them exceed their comfort level.  Often times, “someone who has worked for the same employer for years is no longer able to cope.  They start making mistakes, are anxious and depressed and leave the work place on a ‘stress leave’”(Latimer, 2010).               

Based on Beehr’s Meta-Model of Occupational Stress, the following steps would be beneficial coping strategies for OCPD sufferers:

1.      Identifying personal characteristics: abnormal preoccupations with lists, rules, minor details, perfectionism, inflexible attitude, fearing the loss of responsibility & change.

2.      Identifying stressors / strains: untidiness, disorder, flexibility, change.

3.      Coping & adaptation: avoid conflicts, set clear expectations & boundaries, psychotherapy (Psychiatric-Disorders.com, 2010).

The assessment of an individual affected by OCPD may be determined by a

fellow employee or management.  This condition is more obvious to recognize by observing the mannerisms and actions of the subject, noticing work habits, and patterns.

            Strategies towards intervention and coping may be utilized by co-workers and management, or therapists.  While long-term psychotherapy is the primary treatment for OCPD it may be combined with medication.  SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) reduce compulsive behavior and treats depression caused by OCPD.  “Cognitive-behavioral therapy is often used, with an emphasis on learning to accept change, uncertainty, and lack of control over certain events.  Ideally treatment helps the patient make a transition from OCPD to a conscientious personality type…more flexible, less rigid, and better able to function” (Psychiatric-Disorders.com, 2010).  In the workplace, it’s beneficial for co-workers and management to avoid arguments and steer clear of conflicts.  However, having an understanding of what’s expected by keeping an open dialogue is encouraged in order to keep the team on track.  Management may also induce the affected to turn in early drafts of assignments in order to ward off procrastination and missed deadlines.  Dividing the workload and delegation may also assist the individual in coping with their condition (Woody, 2010).

            In general, personality disorders inhibit success and productivity in the workplace.  If the affected are not properly identified and effectively treated, they continue to ‘poison’ themselves and those in contact with them.  They could inevitably be the downfall of the organization.  However, “employers have a vested interest in joining with mental health professionals in addressing these disorders, which can have far-reaching effects on the quality of life for affected individuals, their co-workers, and the entire work environment” (Thomas & Hersen, 2004, p. 159).

References:

Grier, S. (2010). Ten Rules for Dealing with the Narcissist in your Office. Retrieved         

            April 9, 2010, from http://www.nitwonline.com/10Rules.html.

HealthyPlace.com Staff Writer, (2007). Narcissism in the Workplace. Retrieved April 9,

            2010, from http://www.healthyplace.com/personality-disorders/transcripts/

            narcissism-in-the-workplace/menu-id-62/.

Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder: Don’t Break the Rules. Retrieved April 9,

            2010, from http://www.psychiatric-disorders.com/articles/personality-disorders/

            obsessive-compulsive.php.

O’Farrell, P. (2001). Cast of Toxic Characters. Retrieved April 9, 2010, from

            http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2001/02/27/tem_cast_of_toxic.html.

Paul Latimer: Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder. Retrieved April 9, 2010, from

http://www.kelowna.com/2010/02/18/paul-latimer-obsessive-compulsive-personality-disorder/.

Raskin, R. and Terry, H. (1988). A Priciple-Components Analysis of the Narcissistic

            Personality Inventory and Further Evidence of Its Construct Validity. Journal of

            Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 54, No. 5, 890-902.

Thomas, D. (2010). Narcissism in the Workplace. Retrieved April 9, 2010, from

            http://www.winning-teams.com/narcissism.html.

Thomas, D. (2010). Managing a Narcissist. Retrieved April 9, 2010, from

            http://www.winning-teams.com/narcissism_manage.html.

Thomas, J.C. and Hersen, T. (2004). Psychopathology in the Workplace. New York, NY:

            Brunner-Routledge.

Woody, T. (2010). Conflict in the Cubicles. Retrieved April 9, 2010, from

            https://www.caremark.com/wps/portal/HEALTH_RESOURCES?topic=brtoxic.        

                     

Cross-Cultural Mediation

 Cross-Cultural Mediation

Conflict is an inevitable component in all human societies.  “By definition, conflict occurring between individuals or social groups that are separated by cultural boundaries can be considered cross-cultural conflict” (Avruch, 1998).  In effort to resolve disputes of this nature, practitioners utilize methodological, experimental, physiological, quantitative, and clinical approaches.  From these methods, mediation, “a process in which a third party neutral, the mediator, assists disputing parties in reaching a mutually agreeable resolution” (Kovach, 2005), is often applied.

An example of a cross-cultural conflict in which mediation would be beneficial is as follows: An Islamic family recently relocated to a small Midwest town which has been unwelcoming to their presence.  In particular, Ahmad, a fifteen year old high school student, has been ridiculed and reprimanded for wearing his turban on campus.  Initially he was instructed by his homeroom teacher, Mr. Simmons, to refrain from wearing the turban on the following day.  Upon arrival on his second day of classes, he was issued after-school detention.  On the third day, Mr. Simmons immediately sent Ahmad to in-school suspension, informed him that he would be suspended for five days if he continued to disregard his authority, and reported the incident to Dr. Paula, the principal.  Once Dr. Paula was aware of the incident, he immediately removed Ahmad from in-school suspension and met with Ahmad and Mr. Simmons separately after school.  Dr. Paula apologized to Ahmad for Mr. Simmons’ actions and assured him that he would address the situation.  Rather than dismiss or suspend Mr. Simmons, which may have disturbed the community at large, Dr. Paula decided to include him in the resolution process.  He felt it would be more beneficial to require the teacher along with Ahmad and the homeroom class to seek mediation.  His goal was to gradually create an embracing environment for Ahmad, which would hopefully stem from the classroom, throughout the school, and possibly to the community.

As the mediator of this cross-cultural conflict, the practitioner should begin by analyzing the stakeholders.  First, Ahmad, a tenth grader of Islamic faith, has recently relocated from London, England to Maysville, Missouri.  His father is a religious studies professor and accepted a position at the local university.  According to his transcript, Ahmad is a tri-lingual honor roll student and has participated in various extra-curricular activities at former institutions.  Second, Mr. Simmons is a forty-six year old Caucasian American English teacher practicing in education for twenty-four years.  He is a lifelong resident of Maysville and represents the ideology of the community at large.  Third, Dr. Paula, a fifty-two year old second generation Dominican American, has served as the principal of the school for four years.  Prior to the high school, he was an assistant principal at the local middle school over ten years.  Therefore, he is familiar with several of his current students and their families.  Born and raised in St. Louis, he studied education at Washington University, taught seventh grade social studies until he completed his doctorate, upon which he accepted the assistant principal position in Maysville.  The next element to consider is the class as a whole.  This group of twenty-five tenth graders is made up of twenty-one Caucasian Americans and four Black Americans.  The vast majority of them have lived in this community or similar towns throughout their life.  Finally, from the mediator’s personal perspective, Mr. Taylor is a Black American from Raleigh, North Carolina, studied media and psychology, and resided throughout the southeast.  Of each of the stakeholders, Ahmad, Dr. Paula, and Mr. Taylor have more exposure and experience with various cultures and ethnicities, unlike Mr. Simmons and his homeroom students.  These factors must be kept in consideration during the mediation process.

In effort to initiate the mediation, the times to meet were set for Mondays and Wednesdays during the homeroom period over the course of six weeks.  All of the stakeholders are to be present inclusive of Dr. Paula primarily for observatory purposes.  At the first session, ground rules were established to ensure a courteous exchange during the conflict resolution process.  These regulations included the following:

1. Keep interactions respectful, even when feeling frustrated or hurt.
2. Maintain emotional control.
3. Keep interactions on "hot topics" within a structured process.
4. Show a willingness to understand.
5. Communicate honestly and openly.
6. Be as objective as possible. 
7. Express concerns in a constructive manner.
8. Focus on future solutions rather than past blame.
9. Look for solutions that meet everyone's needs (Managing and Resolving Conflict, 2011).

Once the ground rules were ascertained, Mr. Taylor decided to initially utilize writing into clarity tactics.  This would permit Ahmad and perhaps more importantly his classmates and Mr. Simmons to recognize that they can not resolve these issues with their current line of thinking.  Instead they must evolve outside of their mental habits in effort to commence to being considerate of others’ differences (LeBaron, 2003).  As the process continued, Mr. Taylor intended to employ shapeshifting and partnering.  First, encouraging the participants to utilize shapeshifting will enable them to nurture inventive ideas and open new possibilities.  As they explore beyond their given knowledge, they will begin to recognize what might be and generate innovative ways of creating a new reality (LeBaron, 2003).  Second, partnering will allow them to discover their cultural and individual blind spots.  “To partner is to recognize that other cultural perspectives complement our own and so to seek those who have a range of experiences and perspectives different from ours” (LeBaron, p. 220, 2003).  With this method, Ahmad will be exposed to the culture and customs of the Maysville community, while Mr. Simmons and his homeroom class are exposed to Islamic customs and practices.

            Throughout this mediation, various cross-cultural issues may arise.  The majority of these will stem from religious differences.  Mr. Simmons, along with Ahmad’s classmates, identifies with or practices Christianity, while Ahmad is a devout Muslim.  Over the past thirteen hundred years, the relationship between these two religions has been tumultuous and the mutual distrust has remained.  However at present, much of the debate stems more from “political tensions and divergent cultural worldviews than with religion, and efforts have been made by both Christians and Muslims to find common ground and engage in respectful dialogue” (Religion Facts, 2011).  In addition, the value systems vary from child to child.  While some of them may feel as if teasing Ahmad is disrespectful, they may be easily influenced by those who express a blatant disregard for Ahmad.  Also, Mr. Simmons and other students feel as if they are justified by their religious beliefs and American principles in their intolerable attitude towards him. Breaking down this barrier will more than likely prove to be the most challenging.  (Post 9/11, many Americans continue to blame Muslims, radical or otherwise, for the disastrous events which occurred).

            Characteristics of this mediation that are different from those of other situations are the religious dynamics, the small town element, and the fact that an elder was also guilty of chastising a minor, not just his peers.  Typically Mr. Taylor has dealt with disputants of similar faiths or with scenarios in which religion was not a domineering issue.  In addition, his prior clients have resided in metropolitan areas throughout the southeast.  Therefore they were more exposed to varying cultures and ethnicities on a regular basis.  Also, the conflict between Mr. Simmons and Ahmad was the first case in which the disputants’ positions varied to such an extreme.  Typically the parties were on equivalent levels, whether students, employees, or teammates.  It was always a child to child or adult to adult relationship.  Each of these elements will create a unique learning experience for Mr. Taylor which will be beneficial in future endeavors. 

            Characteristics unique to this cross-cultural conflict are again the teacher reprimanding the student based on religious practices, having a group of students opposing a single individual, and the principal intervening and supporting a student versus the teacher and the classmates.  Typically in a public school system, all students’ religious beliefs or non-beliefs are accepted and respected, at least on the surface, by the faculty and staff.  However, Mr. Simmons blatantly went out of his way to scold and discipline Ahmad merely due to the fact that it is customary that he wears a turban.  Also, in most cases a group of students may oppose another group or the administration, or a student may have issues with one of their peers.  Yet in this scenario, Ahmad’s entire homeroom class along with a number of the students throughout the school have ridiculed and ostracized him.  He has been enduring this conflict alone.  One must also consider the fact that Dr. Paula came to Ahmad’s aid and supported him instead of siding with Mr. Simmons.  Usually it is the student who is at fault, nevertheless the teacher was obviously the one in need of reprimanding in this case.  Instead of leading by example and welcoming Ahmad, he perpetuated and encouraged the negative ideologies among his students.

            From this mediation, Mr. Taylor will gather a greater sense of how to address religious divergence.  This will be beneficial in future mediations.  It will provide him with firsthand experience on assisting disputants from varying religious backgrounds and beliefs.  Encouraging those in such circumstances is one of the most difficult obstacles to overcome.  One’s religious beliefs, practices, and acceptance are the core of their morals and value system and thus directly affect their interpretation and response.  Learning how to maneuver and enable disputants to become understanding and accepting of one another in these types of situations will be a critical skill to develop.

            Among individuals, conflict will continue to occur, typically even more so when cultures are crossed.  Hence it is crucial for people to learn how to cordially relate to each other when disagreements or misunderstandings arise.  “Faced with conflict, communicating is always the right thing to do” (Krauss & Morsella, p. 144, 2006).  In addition, mediation may be necessary to resolve cross-cultural conflict.  A professional or experienced practitioner should intervene and assist the disputants in respectfully and effectively resolving their issues.  

References:

Avruch K. (1998). Culture and Conflict Resolution. Encyclopedia of Life Support

Systems. Retrieved January 10, 2011, from

http://www.eolss.net/ebooks/Sample%20Chapters/C14/E1-40-01-01.pdf.

Kovach, K. (2005). The Handbook of Dispute Resolution. In M.L. Moffitt, R.C. Bordone,

            Mediation (pp.304-317). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Krauss, R.M. and Morsella, E. (2006). Communication and Conflict. In M. Deutsch, P.T.

Coleman, & E.C. Marcus (Eds.). The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory

and Practice (pp. 144-157). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Boss.

LeBaron, M. (2003). Bridging cultural conflicts: A new approach for a changing world.

San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Managing and Resolving Conflict.  Ground rules for effective conflict resolution.

Retrieved January 6, 2011, from

http://hr2.hr.arizona.edu/06_jcl/jobdesc/groundrules.htm.

Religion Facts. Comparison Chart: Christianity and Islam. Retrieved January 10, 2011,

from http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/charts/christianity_islam.htm.